HomePsychology and Education: A Multidisciplinary Journalvol. 49 no. 5 (2025)

High-Intensity Interval and Moderate-Intensity Continuous Training: Effect on Athletes' Athletic Performance

Mea Ravalo

Discipline: Education

 

Abstract:

This research investigated the effects of two training groups on muscular strength and endurance among student-athletes at Salay Community College. Sixty-two participants were recruited and allocated to HIIT (three times a week) and MICT (five times a week) training protocols over eight weeks using a quasi-experimental pretest-posttest design. The researcher administered pre- and post-intervention assessments to measure changes in squat and push-up performance, evaluating both strength and endurance components. Analysis revealed that both training groups achieved significant improvements across the measured variables, with a statistically significant difference between the groups' pretest and posttest scores for muscular strength and endurance. However, the MICT group demonstrated superior gains in upper-body strength and endurance, as well as enhanced lower-body endurance capacity. Post-training assessments showed that MICT participants outperformed their HIIT counterparts in push-up strength, push-up endurance, and squat endurance, with statistically significant differences between groups. Regarding squat strength specifically, both training modalities produced similar improvement levels with no statistically significant difference between groups. These outcomes underscore the value of structured, research-informed exercise programs for student-athletes, indicating that MICT could offer greater advantages for overall athletic progress in school environments.



References:

  1. Adams, M. M., Hatch, S. A., Winsor, E. G., & Parmelee, C. (2022). Development of a standard push-up scale for college-aged females. International Journal of Exercise Science, 15(5), 1042–1053. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9362895/
  2. Alvarez, C., Ramírez-Campillo, R., Ramírez-Velez, R., & Izquierdo, M. (2017). Effects of 6-weeks high-intensity interval training in schoolchildren with insulin resistance: Influence of biological maturation on metabolic, body composition, cardiovascular and performance non-responses. Frontiers in Physiology, 8, Article 444.  https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphys.2017.00444/full
  3. Alves, E. D., Salermo, G. P., Panissa, V. L. G., Franchini, E., & Takito, M. Y. (2017). Effects of long or short duration stimulus during high-intensity interval training on physical performance, energy intake, and body composition. Journal of Exercise Rehabilitation, 13(5), 587–593. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29114503/
  4. Andreato, L. V., Branco, B. H. M., & Esteves, J. V. (2018). Comment on: "Effect of high-intensity interval training on total, abdominal and visceral fat mass: A meta-analysis." Sports Medicine, 48(9), 2183–2185. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-018-0904-6
  5. Appleby, B., Banyard, H., Cormack, S. J., & Newton, R. U. (2020). Validity and reliability of methods to determine barbell velocity: Implications for monitoring resistance training. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 34(11), 3173–3181. https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/Abstract/2020/11000/Validity_and_Reliability_of_Methods_to_Determine.14.aspx
  6. Ashton, R. E., Tew, G. A., Aning, J. J., Gilbert, S. E., Lewis, L., & Saxton, J. M. (2018). Effects of short-term, medium-term and long-term resistance exercise training on cardiometabolic health outcomes in adults: Systematic review with meta-analysis. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 52(5), 327–334. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29934430/
  7. Astorino, T. A., Allen, R. P., Roberson, D. W., & Jurancich, M. (2018). Physiological, perceptual, and affective responses to six high-intensity interval training protocols. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322712156_Physiological_Perceptual_and_Affective_Responses_to_Six_High-Intensity_Interval_Training_Protocols
  8. Baumgartner, L., Weberruß, H., Oberhoffer-Fritz, R., & Schulz, T. (2020). Vascular structure and function in children and adolescents: What impact do physical activity, health-related physical fitness, and exercise have? Frontiers in Pediatrics, 8, Article 103. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/pediatrics/articles/10.3389/fped.2020.00103/full
  9. Banyard, H. G., Nosaka, K., Sato, K., & Haff, G. G. (2019). Validity of various methods for determining velocity, force, and power in the back squat. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 14(4), 546–555. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2018-0250
  10. Batacan, R. B., Duncan, M. J., Dalbo, V. J., Tucker, P. S., & Fenning, A. S. (2017). Effects of high-intensity interval training on cardiometabolic health: A systematic review and meta-analysis of intervention studies. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 51(6), 494–503. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27797726/
  11. Berryman, N., Mujika, I., Bosquet, L., & Coutts, A. J. (2016). Effects of strength training on running economy in highly trained runners: A systematic review with meta-analysis of controlled trials. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 30(8), 2361–2368. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26694507/
  12. Billat, V. L., Palacin, F., Correa, M., & Pycke, J.-R. (2019). Pacing strategy affects the sub-elite marathoner's cardiac drift and performance. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, Article 3026. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.03026/full
  13. Bishop, C., Turner, A., Jarvis, P., Chavda, S., & Read, P. (2017). Considerations for selecting field-based strength and power fitness tests to measure asymmetries. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 31(9), 2635–2644. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28644195/
  14. Blagrove, R. C., Howatson, G., & Hayes, P. R. (2018). Effects of strength training on the physiological determinants of middle- and long-distance running performance: A systematic review. Sports Medicine, 48(5), 1117–1149. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-017-0835-7
  15. Brick, N. E., MacIntyre, T. E., & Campbell, M. J. (2016). Thinking and action: A cognitive perspective on self-regulation during endurance performance. Frontiers in Physiology, 7, Article 159. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphys.2016.00159/full
  16. Buchheit, M. (2018). High-intensity interval training, solutions to the programming puzzle: Part I: Cardiopulmonary emphasis. Sports Medicine, 48(7), 1539–1556. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23539308/
  17. Chaabene, H., Prieske, O., Moran, J., Negra, Y., & Granacher, U. (2021). Effects of resistance training on change-of-direction speed in youth and young physically active and athletic adults: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Sports Medicine, 51, 189–206. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-020-01344-5
  18. Campbell, S., Greenwood, M., Prior, S., Shearer, T., Walkem, K., Young, S., Bywaters, D., & Walker, K. (2020). Purposive sampling: Complex or simple? Research case examples. Research in Nursing & Health, 43(5), 687–695. https://doi.org/10.1177/1744987120927206
  19. Castagna, C., Francini, L., Póvoas, S. C. A., & D’Ottavio, S. (2017). Long-sprint abilities in soccer: Ball versus running drills. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 12(9), 1256–1262. https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/ijspp/12/9/article-p1256.xml
  20. Colquhoun, R. J., Gai, C. M., Aguilar, D., Bove, D., Dolan, J., Vargas, A., ... & Campbell, B. I. (2018). Training volume, not frequency, indicative of maximal strength adaptations in resistance-trained men. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 32(5), 1207–1213. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000001977
  21. Coratella, G., Beato, M., Milanese, C., Longo, S., Limonta, E., Rampichini, S., Cè, E., Bisconti, A. V., Schena, F., & Esposito, F. (2018). Specific adaptations in performance and muscle architecture after weighted jump-squat vs. body mass squat jump training in recreational soccer players. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 32(7), 1913–1921. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29420390/
  22. Cortis, C. G. M., & Foster, C. (2016). The specificity of the Loughborough intermittent shuttle test for recreational soccer players is independent of their intermittent running ability. Research in Sports Medicine, 24(3), 265–276. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27547994/
  23. Creswell, J. W., & Guetterman, T. C. (2021). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (6th ed.). Pearson. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324451568_Educational_Research_Planning_Conducting_and_Evaluating_Quantitative_and_Qualitative_Research_6th_Edition
  24. Damas, F., Angleri, V., Phillips, S. M., Witard, O. C., Ugrinowitsch, C., Santanielo, N., Soligon, S. D., Costa, L. A. R., Lixandrão, M. E., Conceição, M. S., & Libardi, C. A. (2019). Myofibrillar protein synthesis and muscle hypertrophy individualized responses to systematically changing resistance training variables in trained young men. Journal of Applied Physiology, 127(4), 945–956. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00350.2019
  25. Davies, T. B., Kuang, K., Orr, R., Halaki, M., & Hackett, D. (2017). Effect of movement velocity during resistance training on dynamic muscular strength: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Medicine, 47(4), 705–716. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-016-0610-3
  26. De la Torre Medina, T. M., López-Taylor, T. M., & López-Taylor, J. R. (2019). Effects of strength training on Olympic time-based sport performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 14(10), 1396–1408. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31672926/
  27. Denadai, B. S., de Aguiar, R. A., de Lima, L. C., Greco, C. C., & Caputo, F. (2017). Explosive training and heavy weight training are effective for improving running economy in endurance athletes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Medicine, 47(3), 545–554. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-016-0604-1
  28. Dexheimer, J. D., Schroeder, E. T., Sawyer, B. J., Pettitt, R. W., Aguinaldo, A. L., & Torrence, W. A. (2019). Physiological performance measures as indicators of CrossFit® performance. Sports, 7(4), 93. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports7040093
  29. Egan, B., Milanović, Z., Granata, C., Joyner, M. J., Lundby, C., Bangsbo, J., Buchheit, M., Gibala, M. J., MacInnis, M. J., Bishop, D. J., Tschakert, G., Seiler, S., Karlsen, T., Batacan, R. B., Montero, D., Arbab-Zadeh, A., Baekkerud, F., ... Astorino, T. A. (2019). Physiological adaptations to interval training to promote endurance. Current Opinion in Physiology, 10, 73–81. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2468867319300999
  30. Ekkekakis, P., & Brand, R. (2019). Affective responses to and automatic affective valuations of physical activity: Fifty years of progress on the seminal question in exercise psychology. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 42, 53–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.12.018
  31. Engel, F. A., Ackermann, A., Chtourou, H., & Sperlich, B. (2018). High-intensity interval training performed by young athletes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Physiology, 9, 1012. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2018.01012
  32. Etikan, I., Musa, S. A., & Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, 5(1), 1–4. https://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/article/10.11648/j.ajtas.20160501.11
  33. Evans, J. W. (2019). Periodized resistance training for enhancing skeletal muscle hypertrophy and strength: A mini-review. Frontiers in Physiology, 10, Article 13. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphys.2019.00013/full
  34. Faigenbaum, A. D., Lloyd, R. S., Myer, G. D., & Ford, K. R. (2016). Integrative neuromuscular training and injury prevention in youth athletes. Part I: Identifying risk factors. Current Sports Medicine Reports, 15(6), 398–404. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303465128_Integrative_Neuromuscular_Training_and_Injury_Prevention_in_Youth_Athletes_Part_I_Identifying_Risk_Factors
  35. Feito, Y., Heinrich, K. M., Butcher, S. J., & Poston, W. S. C. (2018). High-intensity functional training (HIFT): Definition and research implications for improved fitness. Sports, 6(3), 76. https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4663/6/3/76
  36. Follador, L., Alves, R. C., & de Oliveira, M. F. (2018). Effects of high-intensity interval training on muscle power: A systematic review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Sport Science, 18(6), 690–701. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2018.1457085
  37. Fort-Vanmeerhaeghe, A., Montalvo, A. M., Sitjà-Rabert, M., Kiefer, A. W., & Myer, G. D. (2016). Neuromuscular training-based injury prevention strategies in youth sport: A systematic review and meta-analysis. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 50(5), 257–263. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2015-094639
  38. Foster, C., Porcari, J. P., Rodriguez-Marroyo, J. A., Bok, D., De Koning, J. J., Van Erp, T., Radtke, K., Jaime, S., Orton, B., Dodge, C., Arney, B. E., Cortis, C., Fusco, A., McGuigan, M., & Boullosa, D. (2021). 25 years of session rating of perceived exertion: Historical perspective and development. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 16(5), 613–618. https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/25-years-of-session-rating-of-perceived-exertion-historical-persp
  39. Foster, C., & Smith, A. J. (2019). Internal and external training load: 15 years on. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 14(1), 1–4. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30614348/
  40. Fragala, M. S., Cadore, E. L., Dorgo, S., Mikel, I., Kraemer, W. J., Peterson, M. D., & Ryan, E. D. (2019). Resistance training for older adults: Position statement. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 33(8), 2019–2052. https://journals.lww.com/nscajscr/fulltext/2019/08000/resistance_training_for_older_adults_position.1.aspx
  41. Gäbler, M., Prieske, O., & Granacher, U. (2018). Effects of isometric vs. dynamic resistance training on strength, power and muscle mass in healthy adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Medicine, 48(2), 339–360. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-017-0795-4
  42. García-Pinillos, F., Cámara-Pérez, J., & Ramírez-Campillo, R. (2017). A high-intensity interval training (HIIT)-based running plan improves aerobic performance and body composition in recreational runners. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 31(5), 120–127. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/A-High-Intensity-Interval-Training-(HIIT)-Based-by-García-Pinillos-Cámara-Pérez/7b38059a897e5c3870b36a938901f8cbdc8ebae
  43. García-Jaén, M., Konarski, J. M., Hernández-Sánchez, S., & Cortell-Tormo, J. M. (2023). The effect of cranio-cervical position on core muscle activation during the prone plank exercise. Applied Sciences, 13(19), 10970. https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/13/19/10970
  44. Gentil, P., Del Vecchio, F. B., Paoli, A., Schoenfeld, B. J., & Bottaro, M. (2017). Isokinetic dynamometry and 1RM tests produce conflicting results for assessing alterations in muscle strength. Journal of Human Kinetics, 56, 19–27. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5384049/
  45. Gentil, P., Soares, S. R., & Bottaro, M. (2017). A review of the acute effects and long-term adaptations of single- and multi-joint exercises during resistance training. Sports Medicine, 47(5), 843–855. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27677913/
  46. Granacher, U., Lesinski, M., Busch, D., Muehlbauer, T., Prieske, O., Puta, C., & Behm, D. G. (2018). The effects of concurrent strength and endurance training on physical fitness and athletic performance in youth: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Physiology, 9, Article 1057. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30131714/
  47. Granata, C., & Bishop, D. J. (2018). Training-induced changes in mitochondrial content and respiratory function in human skeletal muscle. Sports Medicine, 48(8), 1809–1828. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-018-0920-6
  48. Greenlee, T. A., Rougeau, K. M., Chizewski, A., Greene, D. R., & Petruzzello, S. J. (2018). Acute vs. chronic effects of exercise on Mental Health — Augusta University Research Profiles. https://augusta.elsevierpure.com/en/publications/acute-vs-chronic-effects-of-exercise-on-mental-health  
  49. Grgic, J., Lazinica, B., Schoenfeld, B. J., & Pedisic, Z. (2020). Test–retest reliability of the one-repetition maximum (1RM) strength assessment: A systematic review. Sports Medicine - Open, 6, Article 31. https://sportsmedicine-open.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40798-020-00260-z
  50. Grgic, J., Schoenfeld, B. J., Skrepnik, M., Davies, T. B., & Mikulic, P. (2018). Effects of rest interval duration in resistance training on measures of muscular strength: A systematic review. Sports Medicine, 48(5), 137–143. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28933024/
  51. Hackett, D. A., Davies, T. B., Orr, R., Kuang, K., & Halaki, M. (2018). Effect of movement velocity during resistance training on muscle‐specific hypertrophy: A systematic review. European Journal of Sport Science, 18(9), 1220–1230. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2018.1434563
  52. Haff, G. G., & Triplett, N. T. (Eds.). (2016). Essentials of strength training and conditioning (4th ed.). Human Kinetics.
  53. Hannan, A. L., Hing, W., Simas, V., Climstein, M., Coombes, J. S., Jayasinghe, R., Byrnes, J., & Furness, J. (2018). High-intensity interval training versus moderate-intensity continuous training within cardiac rehabilitation: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Open Access Journal of Sports Medicine, 9, 1–17. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5790162/
  54. Howatson, G., Leeder, J., & van Someren, K. (2016). The BASES expert statement on athletic recovery strategies. https://www.bases.org.uk/imgs/tses_expert_statement_spread_recovery_strategies947.pdf 
  55. Hurst, C., Weston, K. L., & Weston, M. (2019). The effect of 12 weeks of combined upper- and lower-body high-intensity interval training on muscular and cardiorespiratory fitness in older adults. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research, 31(5), 661–671. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40520-018-1015-9
  56. Hyatt, H. W., Kephart, W. C., Holland, A. M., Mumford, P. W., Mobley, C. B., Lowery, R. P., ... & Roberts, M. D. (2019). Sleep quality and duration improve following moderate-intensity continuous exercise training in sedentary adults. Sleep Medicine, 57, 183–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2019.01.001
  57. Hyatt, H. W., Smuder, A. J., Sollanek, K. J., Morton, A. B., Roberts, M. D., & Kavazis, A. N. (2016). Comparative changes in antioxidant enzymes and oxidative stress in cardiac, fast twitch and slow twitch skeletal muscles following endurance exercise training. International Journal of Physiology, Pathophysiology and Pharmacology, 8(3), 97–104. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28078055/
  58. Impellizzeri, F. M., Marcora, S. M., & Coutts, A. J. (2019). Internal and external training load: 15 years on. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 14(2), 270–273. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2018-0935
  59. Islam, H., Siemens, T. L., Matusiak, J. B. L., Sawula, L., Bonafiglia, J. T., Preobrazenski, N., Jung, M. E., & Gurd, B. J. (2019). Cardiorespiratory fitness and muscular endurance responses immediately and two months after a whole-body tabata or vigorous-intensity continuous training intervention. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 44(12), 1260–1268. https://doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2019-0264
  60. Ito, S. (2019). High-intensity interval training for health benefits and care of cardiac diseases: The key to an efficient exercise protocol. World Journal of Cardiology, 11(7), 171–188. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6763680/
  61. Jabbour, G., Iancu, H.-D., Mauriège, P., Joanisse, D. R., & Martin, L. J. (2017). High-intensity interval training improves performance in young and older individuals by increasing mechanical efficiency. Physiological Reports, 5(7), e13269. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5392519/
  62. Jones, A. M., Burnley, M., Black, M. I., Poole, D. C., & Vanhatalo, A. (2019). The maximal metabolic steady state: Redefining the "gold standard." Physiological Reports, 7(10), e14098. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31124324/
  63. Joo, C. H. (2018). The effects of high-intensity interval training on performance parameters in youth soccer players. Journal of Exercise Rehabilitation, 14(6), 902–908. https://doi.org/10.12965/jer.1836488.244
  64. Keating, S. E., Johnson, N. A., Mielke, G. I., & Coombes, J. S. (2017). A systematic review and meta-analysis of interval training versus moderate-intensity continuous training on body adiposity. Obesity Reviews, 18(8), 943–964. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12536
  65. Kellmann, M., Bertollo, M., Bosquet, L., Brink, M., Coutts, A. J., Duffield, R., ... & Beckmann, J. (2018). Recovery and performance in sport: Consensus statement. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 13(2), 240–245. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2017-0759
  66. Kiely, J. (2017). Periodization theory: Confronting an inconvenient truth. Sports Medicine, 48(4), 753–764. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-017-0823-y
  67. Kim, T. K. (2017). Understanding one-way ANOVA using conceptual figures. Korean Journal of Anesthesiology, 70(1), 22–26. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28184262/ 
  68. Kim, Y.-S., Kim, D.-Y., & Ha, M.-S. (2016). Effect of the push-up exercise at different palmar width on muscle activities. Journal of Physical Therapy Science, 28(3), 902–905. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4792988/
  69. Kikuchi, N., & Nakazato, K. (2018). Effect of progressive calisthenic push-up training on muscle strength and thickness. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 32(2), 393–399. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29466268/
  70. Kommula, S., & colleagues. (2023). Emotional processing and positive affect after acute exercise in healthy older adults. Psychophysiology, 60(6), e14357. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.14357
  71. Kotarsky, C. J., Christensen, B. K., Miller, J. S., & Wiley, J. P. (2018). Effect of hand width on electromyographic activity during the push-up exercise. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 32(1), 166–171. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000002260
  72. Kovacevic, A., Mavros, Y., Heisz, J. J., & Fiatarone Singh, M. A. (2018). The effect of resistance exercise on sleep: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 39, 52–68. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28919335/
  73. Krzysztofik, M., Wilk, M., Wojdała, G., & Golas, A. (2019). Maximizing muscle hypertrophy: A systematic review of advanced resistance training techniques and methods. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 33(4), 949–965. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337740851_Maximizing_Muscle_Hypertrophy_A_Systematic_Review_of_Advanced_Resistance_Training_Techniques_and_Methods
  74. Lakens, D. (2022). Sample size justification. Collabra: Psychology, 8(1), 33267. https://online.ucpress.edu/collabra/article/8/1/33267/120491/Sample-Size-Justification
  75. Leavy, P. (2017). Research design: Quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods, arts-based, and community-based participatory research approaches. The Guilford Press. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327420021_Leavy_P_2017_Research_Design_Quantitative_Qualitative_Mixed_Methods_Arts-Based_and_Community-Based_Participatory_Research_Approaches_New_York_NY_The_Guilford_Press_ISBN_9781462514380_300_pp_Paperback
  76. Lockie, R. G., Davis, D. L., Birmingham-Babauta, S. A., Beiley, M. D., Hurley, J. M., Stage, A. A., Stokes, J. J., Tomita, T. M., Torne, I. A., & Lazar, A. (2016). Physiological characteristics of incoming freshmen field players in a men's division I collegiate soccer team. Sports, 4(2), 34. https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4663/4/2/34
  77. Lorenzetti, S., Ostermann, M., Zeidler, F., Zimmer, P., Jentsch, L., List, R., Taylor, W. R., & Schellenberg, F. (2018). How to squat? Effects of various stance widths, foot placement angles, and level of experience on knee, hip, and trunk motion and loading. BMC Sports Science, Medicine & Rehabilitation, 10, Article 14. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6050697/
  78. MacInnis, M. J., & Gibala, M. J. (2017). Physiological adaptations to interval training and the role of exercise intensity. The Journal of Physiology, 595(9), 2915–2930. https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1113/JP273196
  79. Mackenzie, B. (2023). Squats test. https://www.brianmac.co.uk/squatest.htm
  80. Maffiuletti, N. A., Aagaard, P., Blazevich, A. J., Folland, J., Tillin, N., & Duchateau, J. (2016). Rate of force development: Physiological and methodological considerations. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 116(6), 1091–1116. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00421-016-3346-6
  81. Maillard, F., Pereira, B., & Boisseau, N. (2020). High-intensity interval training promotes total and visceral fat mass loss in obese adults: A meta-analysis. Obesity, 26(2), 278–291. https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.22113
  82. Malm, C., Jakobsson, J., & Isaksson, A. (2019). Physical activity and sports—real health benefits: A review with insight into the public health of Sweden. Sports, 7(5), 127. https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4663/7/5/127
  83. Manchado, C., García-Ruiz, J., Cortell-Tormo, J. M., & Tortosa-Martínez, J. (2017). Effect of core training on male handball players' throwing velocity. Journal of Human Kinetics, 56, 177–185. https://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5384065
  84. Martínez-Rodríguez, A., Rubio-Arias, J. A., García-De Frutos, J. M., Vicente-Martínez, M., & Gunnarsson, T. P. (2021). Effect of high-intensity interval training and intermittent fasting on body composition and physical performance in active women. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(12), 6431. https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/18/12/6431
  85. Martins, C., Kazakova, I., Ludviksen, M., Mehus, I., Wisloff, U., Kulseng, B., Morgan, L., & King, N. (2016). High-intensity interval training and isocaloric moderate-intensity continuous training result in similar improvements in body composition and fitness in obese individuals. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 26(3), 197–204. https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/ijsnem/26/3/article-p197.xml
  86. Mateo, A. (2018). How to do Hindu push-ups to build your upper body strength. https://www.womenshealthmag.com/fitness/a20697233/hindu-pushup/
  87. Mayorga-Vega, D., Aguilar-Soto, P., & Viciana, J. (2015). Criterion-related validity of the 20-m shuttle run test for estimating cardiorespiratory fitness: A meta-analysis. Journal of Sports Science & Medicine, 14(3), 536–547. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4541117/
  88. Methenitis, S. (2018). A brief review on concurrent training: From laboratory to the field. Sports, 6(4), 127. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports6040127
  89. McGovern, J. (2016). When actions speak louder than words: Extending the reach of qualitative data collecting. Global Qualitative Nursing Research, 3. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5415283/
  90. McGuigan, M. (2017). Monitoring training and performance in athletes. Human Kinetics. https://us.humankinetics.com/products/monitoring-training-and-performance-in-athletes
  91. McLester, C. N., Nickerson, B. S., Kliszczewicz, B. M., & McLester, J. R. (2020). Reliability and agreement of various inbody body composition analyzers as compared to dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry in healthy men and women. Journal of Clinical Densitometry, 23(2), 290–297. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30472111/
  92. Menz, V., Marterer, N., Amin, S. B., Faulhaber, M., & Hansen, A. B. (2019). Functional vs. running low-volume high-intensity interval training: Effects on VO2max and muscular endurance. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 18(3), 497–504. https://www.jssm.org/jssm-18-497.xml
  93. Methenitis, S. (2018). A brief review on concurrent training: From laboratory to the field. Sports, 6(4), 127. https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4663/6/4/127
  94. Mishra, P., Pandey, C., Singh, U., & Gupta, A. (2019). Descriptive statistics and normality tests for statistical data. Annals of Cardiac Anaesthesia, 22(1), 67–72. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330378535_Descriptive_Statistics_and_Normality_Tests_for_Statistical_Data
  95. Moir, G. L., Garcia, A., Dudgeon, W. D., & Mino, L. (2017). The effects of different rest intervals on repeated 1-minute maximal cycling sprints. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 117(2), 257–265. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-016-3516-6
  96. Mujika, I., Rønnestad, B. R., & Martin, D. T. (2016). Effects of increased muscle strength and muscle mass on endurance-cycling performance. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 11(3), 283–289.  https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/ijspp/11/3/article-p283.xml
  97. Mujika, I., Halson, S., Burke, L. M., Balagué, G., & Farrow, D. (2018). An integrated, multifactorial approach to periodization for optimal performance in individual and team sports. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 13(5), 538–561. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29848161/
  98. Murphy, M. G., & Wilson, F. (2018). The compatibility of concurrent high-intensity interval training and resistance training for muscular strength and hypertrophy: A systematic review and meta-analysis. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328849154_The_compatibility_of_concurrent_high_intensity_interval_training_and_resistance_training_for_muscular_strength_and_hypertrophy_a_systematic_review_and_meta-analysis
  99. Naderifar, M., Goli, H., & Ghaljaei, F. (2017). Snowball sampling: A purposeful method of sampling in qualitative research. Iranian Journal of Medical Education, 17, 1–6. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324590206_Snowball_Sampling_A_Purposeful_Method_of_Sampling_in_Qualitative_Research
  100. Nugent, F. J., Comyns, T. M., & Warrington, G. D. (2017). Quality versus quantity debate in swimming: Perceptions and training practices of expert swimming coaches. Journal of Human Kinetics, 57, 147–158. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5504587/
  101. Nunes, J. P., Costa, B. D. V., Kassiano, W., Kunevaliki, G., Castro-E-Souza, P., Rodacki, A. L. F., Fortes, L. S., & Cyrino, E. S. (2020). Different foot positioning during calf training to induce portion-specific gastrocnemius muscle hypertrophy. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 34(8), 2293–2298. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32735428/
  102. Nuñez, T. P., Amorim, F. T., Beltz, N., & Mermier, C. M. (2020). Metabolic effects of two high-intensity circuit training protocols: Does sequence matter? https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335054218_Metabolic_effects_of_two_high-intensity_circuit_training_protocols_Does_sequence_matter
  103. Nuuttila, O.-P., Nikander, A., Polomoshnov, D., Laukkanen, J. A., & Häkkinen, K. (2017). Effects of HRV-guided vs. predetermined block training on performance, HRV and serum hormones. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 38(11), 909–920. https://www.thieme-connect.com/products/ejournals/abstract/10.1055/s-0043-115122
  104. Oliva-Lozano, J. M., & Muyor, J. M. (2020). Core muscle activity during physical fitness exercises: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(12), 4306. https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/17/12/4306
  105. Orssatto, L. B. R., Bezerra, E., Moura, B., & Andersen, L. L. (2018). Influence of strength training intensity on subsequent recovery in elderly. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323683334_Influence_of_strength_training_intensity_on_subsequent_recovery_in_elderly
  106. Panteleimon, E., & Brand, R. (2019). Affective responses to and automatic affective valuations of physical activity: Fifty years of progress on the seminal question in exercise psychology. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 42, 53–63. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1469029218305363
  107. Paz, G. A., Maia, M. F., Santana, H. G., Miranda, H., Lima, V., & Willson, J. D. (2019). Knee frontal plane projection angle: A comparison study between drop vertical jump and step-down tests with young volleyball athletes. Journal of Sport Rehabilitation, 28(2), 153–160. https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/jsr/28/2/article-p153.xml
  108. Paulsen, G., Mikkelsen, U. R., Raastad, T., & Peake, J. M. (2017). Muscle damage and inflammation during recovery from exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology, 122(3), 559–570. https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/japplphysiol.00971.2016
  109. Peake, J. M., Neubauer, O., Della Gatta, P. A., & Nosaka, K. (2017). Muscle damage and inflammation during recovery from exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology, 122(3), 559–570. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00971.2016
  110. Ramirez-Campillo, R., Álvarez, C., García-Hermoso, A., Ramírez-Vélez, R., Gentil, P., Asadi, A., Chaabene, H., Moran, J., Meylan, C., García-de-Alcaraz, A., Sanchez-Sanchez, J., Nakamura, F. Y., Granacher, U., Kraemer, W., & Izquierdo, M. (2020). Methodological characteristics and future directions for plyometric jump training research: A scoping review. Sports Medicine, 50(4), 653–684. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29470823/
  111. Ranganathan, P., Aggarwal, R., & Pramesh, C. S. (2019). Study designs: Part 3 - Analytical observational studies. Perspectives in Clinical Research, 10(3), 144–146. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31008076/
  112. Reichardt, C. S. (2019). Quasi-experimentation: A guide to design and analysis. Guilford Press. https://www.guilford.com/books/Quasi-Experimentation/Charles-Reichardt/9781462540204
  113. Ribeiro, A. S., Schoenfeld, B. J., Pinto, R. S., & Cyrino, E. S. (2016). Electromyographical comparison of pike variations performed with and without instability devices. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 30(5), 1397–1404. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27191692/
  114. Riebe, D. (2018). ACSM's guidelines for exercise testing and prescription (10th ed.). Wolters Kluwer. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nlmcatalog/101692713
  115. Robinson, M. M., Dasari, S., Konopka, A. R., Johnson, M. L., Manjunatha, S., Esponda, R. R., Carter, R. E., Lanza, I. R., & Nair, K. S. (2017). Enhanced protein translation underlies improved metabolic and physical adaptations to different exercise training modes in young and old humans. Cell Metabolism, 25(3), 581–592. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28273480/
  116. Roy, M., Williams, S. M., Brown, R. C., Meredith-Jones, K. A., Osborne, H., Jospe, M., & Taylor, R. W. (2018). High-intensity interval training in the real world: Outcomes from a 12-month intervention in overweight adults. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 50(8), 1818–1826. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29683919/
  117. Sabag, A., Little, J. P., & Johnson, N. A. (2022). Low‐volume high‐intensity interval training for cardiometabolic health. The Journal of Physiology, 600(1), 131–151. https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1113/JP281210
  118. Sabag, A., Thomas, E. E., Johnson, N. A., & Stamatakis, E. (2021). The impact of moderate-intensity continuous training and interval training on cardiorespiratory fitness: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Medicine, 51(6), 1229–1247. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-020-01403-x
  119. Saeterbakken, A. H., Chaudhari, A., van den Tillaar, R., & Andersen, V. (2019). The effects of performing integrated compared to isolated core exercises. PLoS ONE, 14(2), e0212216. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0212216
  120. Sahin, M. (2018). Effects of Different Plyometric Training Frequencies on Components of Physical Fitness in Amateur Female Soccer Players. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325975549_Effects_of_Different_Plyometric_Training_Frequencies_on_Components_of_Physical_Fitness_in_Amateur_Female_Soccer_Players
  121. Sánchez-Sánchez, J., Ramírez-Campillo, R., Petisco, C., Gonzalo-Skok, O., Rodríguez-Fernández, A., Miñano, J., & Nakamura, F. Y. (2019). Effects of repeated sprints with changes of direction on youth soccer player's performance: Impact of initial fitness level. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 33(8), 2106–2114. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28902114/
  122. Sandbakk, O., Holmberg, H.-C., & Solli, G. S. (2017). Sex differences in world record performance: The influence of sport discipline and competition duration. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316849039_Sex_Differences_in_World_Record_Performance_The_Influence_of_Sport_Discipline_and_Competition_Duration
  123. Schaun, G. Z., Pinto, S. S., Silva, M. R., Dolinski, D. B., & Alberton, C. L. (2018). Whole-body high-intensity interval training induces similar cardiorespiratory and neuromuscular adaptations as traditional endurance training in healthy young men. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 32(10), 2730–2742. https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/fulltext/2018/10000/whole_body_high_intensity_interval_training_induce.6.aspx
  124. Schoenfeld, B. J., Grgic, J., Van Every, D. W., & Plotkin, D. L. (2021). Loading recommendations for muscle strength, hypertrophy, and local endurance: A re-examination of the repetition continuum. Sports, 9(2), 32. https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4663/9/2/32
  125. Schoenfeld, B. J., Ogborn, D., & Krieger, J. W. (2017). Strength and hypertrophy adaptations between low- vs. high-load resistance training: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 31(12), 3508–3523. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28834797/
  126. Schumann, M., Feuerbacher, J. F., Sünkeler, M., & Freitag, N. (2021). An updated systematic review and meta-analysis on the compatibility of concurrent aerobic and strength training for skeletal muscle size and function. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351760648_An_updated_systematic_review_and_meta-analysis_on_the_compatibility_of_concurrent_aerobic_and_strength_training_for_skeletal_muscle_size_and_function  
  127. Silva, A. F., Clemente, F. M., Lima, R., Nikolaidis, P. T., Rosemann, T., & Knechtle, B. (2019). The effect of plyometric training in volleyball players: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(16), 2960. https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/16/16/2960
  128. Slimani, M., & Bragazzi, N. L. (2018). High-intensity interval training performed by young athletes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326377013_High-Intensity_Interval_Training_Performed_by_Young_Athletes_A_Systematic_Review_and_Meta-Analysis
  129. Snarr, R. L., & Esco, M. R. (2020). Electromyographical comparison of traditional and hand-release push-up variations. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 34(2), 452–457. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000002722
  130. Soligard, T., Schwellnus, M., Alonso, J. M., Bahr, R., Clarsen, B., Dijkstra, H. P., Gabbett, T., Gleeson, M., Hägglund, M., Hutchinson, M. R., Janse van Rensburg, C., Khan, K. M., Meeusen, R., Orchard, J. W., Pluim, B. M., Raftery, M., Budgett, R., & Engebretsen, L. (2016). How much is too much? (Part 1) International Olympic Committee consensus statement on load in sport and risk of injury. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 50(17), 1030–1041. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27535989/
  131. Stellingwerff, T. (2018). Case study: Body composition periodization in an Olympic-level female middle-distance runner over a 9-year career. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 28(5), 428–433. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29140157/
  132. Stork, M. J., Banfield, L. E., Gibala, M. J., & Martin Ginis, K. A. (2017). A scoping review of the psychological responses to interval exercise: Is interval exercise a viable alternative to traditional exercise? Health Psychology Review, 11(3), 324–344. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28460601/
  133. Suchomel, T. J., Nimphius, S., Bellon, C. R., & Stone, M. H. (2018). The importance of muscular strength: Training considerations. Sports Medicine, 48(4), 765–785. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-018-0862-z
  134. Sylvester, B. D., Standage, M., Ark, T. K., Sweet, S. N., Crocker, P. R., Zumbo, B. D., & Beauchamp, M. R. (2016). Is variety a spice of (an active) life?: Perceived variety, exercise behavior, and the mediating role of autonomous motivation. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 38(5), 562–572. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25356614/
  135. Taipale, R., Forssell, J., Ihalainen, J., & Kyröläinen, H. (2020). A 10-week block of combined high-intensity endurance and strength training produced similar changes in dynamic strength, body composition, and serum hormones in women and men. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344623373_A_10-Week_Block_of_Combined_High_Intensity_Endurance_and_Strength_  Training_Produced_Similar_Changes_in_Dynamic_Strength_Body_Composition_and_Serum_Hormones_in_Women_and_Men
  136. Thompson, B. J., Stock, M. S., Mota, J. A., Drusch, A. S., DeFranco, R. N., Cook, T. R., & Hamm, M. A. (2017). Adaptations associated with an after-school strength and conditioning program in middle school-aged boys. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 31(10), 2817–2824. https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/fulltext/2017/10000/adaptations_associated_with_an_after_school.23.aspx
  137. Tiller, N. B., Roberts, J. D., Beasley, L., Chapman, S., Pinto, J. M., Smith, L., Wiffin, M., Russell, M., Sparks, S. A., Duckworth, L., O'Hara, J., Sutton, L., Antonio, J., Willoughby, D. S., Tarpey, M. D., Smith-Ryan, A. E., Ormsbee, M. J., Astorino, T. A., Kreider, R. B., ... Bannock, L. (2019). International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: Nutritional considerations for single-stage ultra-marathon training and racing. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 16, Article 50. https://jissn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12970-019-0312-9
  138. Treff, G., Winkert, K., Sareban, M., Steinacker, J. M., & Sperlich, B. (2019). The polarization-index: A simple calculation to distinguish polarized from non-polarized training intensity distributions. Frontiers in Physiology, 10, 707. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphys.2019.00707/full
  139. Van den Tillaar, R., & Saeterbakken, A. H. (2016). Upper body muscle activation during low- versus high-load resistance exercise in the bench press. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/306379287_Upper_body_muscle_activation_during_low-versus_high-load_resistance_exercise_in_the_bench_press
  140. Varela-Sanz, A., Tuimil, J. L., Abreu, L., & Boullosa, D. A. (2017). Does concurrent training intensity distribution matter? Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 31(1), 181–195. https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/fulltext/2017/01000/does_concurrent_training_intensity_distribution.21.aspx
  141. Varley-Campbell, J. L., Randhawa, N., Evans, M., & Wilson, S. (2018). Methodology matters: A systematic review of the effects of training on VO2max in competitive athletes. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 50(9), 1788–1799. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000001649
  142. Viana, R. B., & de Lira, C. A. B. (2019). Is interval training the magic bullet for fat loss? A systematic review and meta-analysis comparing moderate-intensity continuous training with high-intensity interval training (HIIT). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331126194_Is_interval_training_the_magic_bullet_for_fat_loss_A_systematic_review_and_meta-analysis_comparing_moderate-intensity_continuous_training_with_high-intensity_interval_training_HIIT
  143. Vikmoen, O., Ellefsen, S., Trøen, Ø., Hollan, I., Hanestadhaugen, M., Raastad, T., & Rønnestad, B. R. (2016). Strength training improves cycling performance, fractional utilization of VO2max and cycling economy in female cyclists. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 26(4), 384–396. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/sms.12468
  144. Vikmoen, O., Raastad, T., Seynnes, O., Bergstrøm, K., Ellefsen, S., & Rønnestad, B. R. (2016). Effects of heavy strength training on running performance and determinants of running performance in female endurance athletes. PLoS ONE, 11(3), e0150799. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0150799
  145. Weakley, J., Mann, B., Banyard, H., McLaren, S., Scott, T., & Garcia Ramos, A. (2021). Velocity-based training: From theory to application. Strength & Conditioning Journal, 43(2), 31–49. https://journals.lww.com/nscascj/Fulltext/2021/04000/Velocity_Based_Training_From_Theory_to.4.aspx
  146. Wen, D., Utesch, T., Wu, J., Robertson, S., Liu, J., Hu, G., & Chen, H. (2019). Effects of different protocols of high intensity interval training for VO2max improvements in adults: A meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 22(8), 941–947. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30733142/
  147. World Medical Association. (2018). WMA Declaration of Helsinki – Ethical principles for medical research involving human participants. https://www.wma.net/policies-post/wma-declaration-of-helsinki/  
  148. Yang, J., Christophi, C. A., Farioli, A., Baur, D. M., Moffatt, S., Zollinger, T. W., & Kales, S. N. (2019). Association between push-up exercise capacity and future cardiovascular events among active adult men. JAMA Network Open, 2(2), e188341. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6484614/