Home⇛Psychology and Education: A Multidisciplinary Journal⇛vol. 48 no. 9 (2025)

The Persuasive Language in Religious Debates Employed by Catholic Faith Defenders and Protestant Preachers: A Discourse Analysis

Algin Mae Lagang | Roxanne Duat

Discipline: Education

 

Abstract:

Duat, Roxanne



References:

  1. A Pragma-Rhetorical Study of Argument in Islamic-Christian Debates. (2022). Journal of Arabic Argumentation, 14(48), 615–642. https://doi.org/10.51990/jaa.14.48.3.28
  2. Abubakirova, A., & Dilbarkhanova, D. (2022). Critical analysis of the influence on power and coordination of the concepts of religion and discourse. ҚазҰУ Хабаршысы, 32(4). https://doi.org/10.26577//ejrs.2022.v32.i4.r8
  3. Adam, M. (2017). Persuasion in religious discourse: Enhancing credibility in sermon titles and openings. Discourse and Interaction, 10(2), 5–25. https://doi.org/10.5817/DI2017-2-5
  4. Adam, M. (2024). Pathetical narrative as a persuasive strategy in Protestant sermons. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/378824814
  5. Adams, K. A., & Lawrence, E. K. (2021). Research methods, statistics, and applications (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications.
  6. Adjei, A. A., Ewusi-Mensah, L., & Logogye, C. (2020). Style in religious discourse: An analysis of the Beatitudes. European American Journal of Social Sciences. https://eajournals.org/wp-content/uploads/Style-in-Religious-Discourse-An-Analysis-of-the-Beatitudes.pdf
  7. Alexander, P. (2024). Sabbath in the Christian tradition. St Andrews Encyclopaedia of Theology. https://www.saet.ac.uk/Christianity/Sabbath
  8. Alfonso, I. (2015, May 24). Catholic Faith Defenders: History and mission. Davao Catholic Herald. https://www.davaocatholicherald.com/2015/05/catholic-faith-defenders-history-and-mission/
  9. Alhamshary, Y. A. A. (2019). A glimpse into the analysis of religious discourse and Islamic identity in Sheikh Al-Azhar Dr Ahmed Al-Tayeb’s sermon on the occasion of the Prophet’s birth. Journal of Social Sciences and Arts, 20(4), 425–448. https://doi.org/10.21608/JSSA.2019.56388
  10. Allen, J. D., Leyva, B., Torres, M. I., Ospino, H., Tom, L. S., Rustan, S., & Bartholomew, A. (2014). Religious beliefs and cancer screening behaviors among Catholic Latinos: Implications for faith-based interventions. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 25(2), 503–526. https://doi.org/10.1353/HPU.2014.0080
  11. Al-Nasher, A., & Kashgary, A. (2010). Persuasion strategies in religious discourse with reference to Deedat’s The Choice: Islam and Christianity. http://fer.rb.kau.edu.sa/Show_Res.aspx?Site_ID=237&LNG=EN&RN=66118
  12. Amin, R. I., Aziz, A. S. A., Paul, M., Arham, A. F., Nornikman, H., Anuar, N., Jamil, M., Othman, N. K., Khaidzir, M. F. S., Rahim, A. A., & Salleh, A. R. (2024). Debating as an academic tool: Fostering holistic and critical thinking in higher education. International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, 13(4). https://doi.org/10.6007/ijarped/v13-i4/23617
  13. Amossy, R. (2001). Ethos at the crossroads of disciplines: Rhetoric, pragmatics, sociology. Poetics Today, 22(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1215/03335372-22-1-1
  14. Aristotle. (2007). On rhetoric: A theory of civic discourse (G. A. Kennedy, Trans., 2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. (Original work published ca. 4th century BCE)
  15. Azaoui, B. (2020). Des corpus vidéo pour (re)construire l’intention de la parole multimodale de l’enseignant. Études de Linguistique Appliquée, 2, 195–206. https://doi.org/10.3917/ELA.198.0067
  16. Baimel, A., White, C. J., Sarkissian, H., & Norenzayan, A. (2021). How is analytical thinking related to religious belief? A test of three theoretical models. Religion, Brain & Behavior, 11(3), 239–260.
  17. Balraj, B. M., Singh, S., & Abd Manan, M. H. (2020). The relationship between language and religion. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 10(11), 1217–1224. https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v10-i11/8198
  18. Bartel, M. J. (1998). The rationality of discernment in Christian ethics. Princeton Theological Seminary.
  19. Beale, G. K. (2012). Criteria for quotes and allusions. In A handbook on the use of the Old Testament in the New. Baker Book House. http://www.theofil.nu/files/Beale%20-%20CriteriaForQuotesAndAllusions.pdf
  20. Bencivenga, E. (2017). Theories of the Logos. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-63396-1
  21. Bhattacharya, K. (2017). Fundamentals of qualitative research: A practical guide. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315231747
  22. Biblical Chronology. (2025). Meaning of biblical allusion: Explore its significance. https://biblicalchronology.com/meaning-of-biblical-allusion/
  23. Birt, L., Scott, S., Cavers, D., Campbell, C., & Walter, F. (2016). Member checking: A tool to enhance trustworthiness or merely a nod to validation? Qualitative Health Research, 26(13), 1802–1811. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732316654870
  24. Bitzer, L. F. (1968). The rhetorical situation. Philosophy and Rhetoric, 1(1), 1–14.
  25. Blom, T., & von Porat, P. (2020). Inductive and deductive arguments in religion and natural science. Theory of Knowledge Essay. https://tobias.blom.org/docs/tok/Arguments.pdf
  26. Boris, L. A. (2017). Religious patterns in contemporary rhetorical discourse. Societal Studies, 9(2), 156–170. https://doi.org/10.13165/SMS-17-9-2-04
  27. Braet, A. (1992). Ethos, pathos and logos in Aristotle’s Rhetoric: A re-examination. Argumentation, 6(3), 307–320. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00154696
  28. Bragg, E. C. (2022). Ecclesiology: Systematic theology. Trinity College of Florida. https://www.trinitycollege.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/EcclesiologyR.pdf
  29. Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
  30. Brugman, B. C. (2024). How the effects of emphasizing ethics are examined: A systematic review of moral framing experiments. Annals of the International Communication Association, 48(4), 436–455. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2024.2393845
  31. Bryant, K. E. (2016). Exegesis of Romans 6:12–23. In Paul and the rise of the slave (pp. 160–205). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004316560_006
  32. Carroll, M. P. (2007). American Catholics in the Protestant imagination: Rethinking the academic study of religion. Johns Hopkins University Press. https://muse.jhu.edu/book/3479
  33. Catechism of the Catholic Church. (1993). The Sabbath day. Vatican. https://www.vatican.va/content/catechism/en/part_three/section_two/chapter_one/article_3/i_the_sabbath_day.html
  34. Catholicus.eu.. (2025). The Catholic truth in the face of Protestant objections: A biblical guide. https://catholicus.eu/en/the-catholic-truth-in-the-face-of-protestant-objections-a-biblical-guide/
  35. Charteris-Black, J. (2011). Politicians and rhetoric: The persuasive power of metaphor (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230319899
  36. Childs, B. S. (1992). Biblical theology of the Old and New Testaments: Theological reflection on the Christian Bible. Fortress Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1b9x1tq
  37. Christensen, D. (2020). Akratic (epistemic) modesty. Philosophical Studies, 178, 2191–2214. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11098-020-01536-6
  38. Churchill, S. (2023). Applying intertextuality to New Testament allusions. South African Theological Seminary. https://sats.ac.za/blog/2023/02/10/37042/
  39. Churchill, W. (2025). 30 prayers for family restoration with scriptures to back. Central Bible Study. https://centralbiblestudy.com/30-prayers-for-family-restoration-with-scriptures-to-back/
  40. Coker, B. (2025). The power of repetition in Scripture: Say it again. Bible Alive. https://bible-alive.com/the-power-of-repetition-in-scripture-say-it-again/
  41. Cornelio, J., & Aldama, P. K. (2020). Religious diversity and covenantal pluralism in the Philippines. The Review of Faith & International Affairs, 18(4), 74–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2020.1834978
  42. Cornelio, J., & Aldama, P. K. (2022). Religious diversity and covenantal pluralism in the Philippines. In Exploring religious diversity and covenantal pluralism in Asia (pp. 121–132). Routledge.
  43. Cornille, C. (2008). The im-possibility of interreligious dialogue. Crossroad Publishing.
  44. Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (4th ed.). Sage.
  45. Crisp, O. D. (2006). Divine retribution: A defence. Springer. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/BF02782398.pdf
  46. Damilare, A. D. (2024). THEOLOGY OF FORGIVENESS AND RECONCILIATION: BUILDING PEACE THROUGH BIBLICAL NARRATIVES. JOS JOURNAL OF RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY, 5(2).
  47. de Lubac, H. (2006). Corpus mysticum: The Eucharist and the Church in the Middle Ages. University of Notre Dame Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvpg84gk
  48. DePalma, M. J. (2011). Re-envisioning religious discourses as rhetorical resources in composition teaching. College Composition and Communication, 63(2), 219–243. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/23131583.pdf
  49. Dixon, F. (2022). Crowning Jesus Lord of all. Words of Life Ministries. https://www.wordsoflife.co.uk/bible-studies/study-8-crowning-jesus-lord-of-all/
  50. Dominguez, N. (2022, May 17). The legacy of ‘63. Seventh-day Adventist Church – Inter-American Division. https://interamerica.org/2022/05/the-legacy-of-63/
  51. Dorst, A. G. (2021). Metaphor. In S. Pihlaja (Ed.), Analysing religious discourse (pp. 235–255). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108863957.014
  52. Dorst, A. G., & Klop, M. (2017). Not a holy father: Dutch Muslim teenagers’ metaphors for Allah. Metaphor and the Social World, 7(1), 66–86. https://doi.org/10.1075/msw.7.1.04dor
  53. Hauser, G. A. (2002). Introduction to rhetorical theory (2nd ed.). Waveland Press.
  54. Heinrichs, J. (2017). Thank you for arguing: What Aristotle, Lincoln, and Homer Simpson can teach us about the art of persuasion. Crown.
  55. Hesse, J. (2023). Metaphors, religious language and linguistic expressibility. International Journal for Philosophy of Religion, 93, 239–258. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11153-023-09865-2
  56. Hillerbrand, H. J. (2004). Encyclopedia of Protestantism. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203484319
  57. Hoenes del Pinal, E. (2016). From Vatican II to speaking in tongues: Theology and language policy in a Q’eqchi’-Maya Catholic parish. Language Policy, 15(2), 179–197. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-015-9364-0
  58. Hostetler, M. J. (2013). Talking about religion in public. Deleted Journal, 36(3), 77–89. https://doi.org/10.5840/jcr201336318
  59. Houk, C. B. (2007). Response concerning Genesis and statistics. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, 32(1), 61–67. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309089207083765
  60. Houts, D. C. (1985). Sensitivity, theology, and change: Pastoral care in the Corinthian letters. Pastoral Psychology, 33(4), 243–253. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01767694
  61. Hunt, A. (2025). Protestant bodies: Gesture in the English Reformation. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108894746.003
  62. Ilie, C. (2008). Strategies of refutation by definition: A pragma-rhetorical approach to refutations in a public speech. In F. H. van Eemeren & B. Garssen (Eds.), Pondering on problems of argumentation (pp. 35–51). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-9165-0_4
  63. Innocenti, B. (2007). Religious reasons for Campbell’s view of emotional appeals in Philosophy of Rhetoric. Rhetoric Society Quarterly, 37(2), 159–180. https://doi.org/10.1080/02773940601021205
  64. Jensen, R. M. (2013). Understanding early Christian art. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203078426
  65. Junker, D. B. A. (2013). Zone of proximal development, liminality, and communitas: Implications for religious education. Religious Education, 108(2), 164–179. https://doi.org/10.1080/00344087.2013.767684
  66. Kareem, M. K. (2025). Persuasive strategies used in religious argumentative discourse. International Journal of Linguistics, 17(1). https://doi.org/10.5296/ijl.v17i1.22641
  67. Karman, K. (2023). Discourse analysis approach and its use in the investigation of social injustice in text representation. Komunika, 10(1), 72–79. https://doi.org/10.22236/komunika.v10i1.10178
  68. Montgomery, J. W. (2018). Faith founded on fact: Essays in evidential apologetics. New Reformation Publications.
  69. Moon, A. (2021). Circular and question-begging responses to religious disagreement and debunking arguments. Philosophical Studies, 178, 785–809. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11098-020-01458-3
  70. Moran, S. (2009). Scrutinizing the signs of times: The Catholic Church, moral theology, and the HIV/AIDS crisis.
  71. Musacchio, F. (2025). Logos: The principle of reason and order in classical philosophy. https://www.fabriziomusacchio.com/weekend_stories/told/2025/2025-01-05-logos/
  72. Nasir, M., Fendi, H., & Indriyani, V. M. (2024). Metode debat dalam pembelajaran: Sebuah upaya peningkatan kemampuan berpikir kritis mahasiswa. Jurnal Bahasa dan Sastra. https://doi.org/10.24036/jbs.v12i1.128155
  73. Neykova, M. (2024). Debate as a form of persuasive communication in university English language teaching. Čuždoezikovo Obučenie, 51(4), 480–490. https://doi.org/10.53656/for2024-04-06
  74. Ngongo, M., Dethan, M., & Hyna, H. B. (2018). Metafunction meaning realization in lexicogrammar of sermon texts on Language and Cultural Month: A systemic functional linguistic approach. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Language Phenomena in Multimodal Communication (KLUA 2018). Atlantis Press. https://doi.org/10.2991/klua-18.2018.33
  75. Nguyen, K. (2025). The role of affective experiences of language and religion in religious heritage language education. European Educational Research Journal, Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/14749041251358419
  76. Nofal, M. Y. (2023). “I’m praising God in the language that He loves”: Language use in religious discourse. International Journal of Arabic-English Studies, 23(2), 19–36. https://doi.org/10.33806/ijaes.v23i2.451
  77. Noll, M. A. (2011). Protestantism: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press.
  78. Nordgren, K. (2011). Pragmatism (theological interpretations). In A. L. C. Runehov & L. Oviedo (Eds.), Encyclopedia of sciences and religions (pp. 1828–1831). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8265-8_1109
  79. Nordquist, R. (2019). Rhetorical analysis definition and examples. ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/rhetorical-analysis-1692066
  80. Norris, P., & Inglehart, R. (2011). Sacred and secular: Religion and politics worldwide (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511894862.003
  81. Nowell, L. S., Norris, J. M., White, D. E., & Moules, N. J. (2017). Thematic analysis: Striving to meet the trustworthiness criteria. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 16(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406917733847
  82. Nussbaum, M. C. (2001). Upheavals of thought: The intelligence of emotions. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511840715
  83. O’Rourke Boyle, M. (2001). Rhetoric and religion. In T. Sloane (Ed.), Encyclopedia of rhetoric (pp. 662–665). Oxford University Press.
  84. Ogbuehi, P. N. (2023). Deictic analysis of cohesive markers in religious discourse. Edumania, Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.59231/edumania/8986
  85. Okoko, J. M., Tunison, S., & Walker, K. D. (Eds.). (2023). Varieties of qualitative research methods: Selected contextual perspectives. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04394-9
  86. Olbricht, T. H. (2003). Analogy and allegory in classical rhetoric. In S. E. Porter (Ed.), Rhetoric and the New Testament (pp. 371–389). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789047402190_020
  87. Palangyos, A. C., & Ulla, M. B. (2025). Persuasion, proclamation, and power: the role of language and rhetoric in sermon delivery. Cogent Arts & Humanities, 12(1), 2481756.
  88. Sawyer, J. F. A. (1999). Sacred languages and sacred texts. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203047750
  89. Shenton, A. K. (2004). Strategies for ensuring trustworthiness in qualitative research projects. Education for Information, 22(2), 63–75. https://doi.org/10.3233/EFI-2004-22201
  90. Sheposh, R. (2023). Logos (Philosophy). EBSCO Research Starters. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/religion-and-philosophy/logos-philosophy
  91. Sia, S. (2024). Ethics and religion. New Blackfriars, 89(1024), 702–709. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-2005.2008.00246.x
  92. Smith, R. (2020). Aristotle’s logic and its legacy. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://iep.utm.edu/aristotle-logic/
  93. Smith, S. G. (2018). Scriptures and the guidance of language: Evaluating a religious authority in communicative action. Cambridge University Press. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/scriptures-and-the-guidance-of-language/7C6822691B91317243099EB025F74B90
  94. Sokolowski, R. (2006). Christian faith and human understanding: Studies on the Eucharist, Trinity, and the human person. Catholic University of America Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt2853xg
  95. Solas, J. N., & Balones, J. (2025). Magnifying religious ideologies: A critical discourse analysis on Christian sermons. Psychology and Education: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 42(8), 1089–1105. https://doi.org/10.70838/pemj.420802
  96. Soskice, J. M. (2007). The kindness of God: Metaphor, gender, and religious language. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199290909.001.0001
  97. Souza, A. (2016). Language and religious identities. In Language and identity (pp. 221–235). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315669816.CH12
  98. Speed, E. (2023). Discourse analysis. In Research methods in education (pp. 98–102). Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781800885691.ch18
  99. Sperber, D. (2010). Figurative language and ambiguity in religious discourse. In E. Sweetser & M. DesCamp (Eds.), Metaphor and religious language. Academic Library.
  100. Spiess, O. (2024). Metapragmatic markers and the instantiation of pragmatic frames. Yearbook of the German Cognitive Linguistics Association, 12(1), 45–67. https://doi.org/10.1515/gcla-2024-0003
  101. Stahl, N. A., & King, J. R. (2020). Expanding approaches for research: Understanding and using trustworthiness in qualitative research. Journal of Developmental Education, 43(2), 28–36.
  102. Stallsmith, G. (2020). Languages of worship: Four liturgical theologies. Arts and Christian Faith, 8(1), 1–15. https://artsandchristianfaith.org/index.php/journal/article/view/209/187
  103. Stefanouskaya, K. I. (2024). The place of discourse analysis as an analytical method of text and speech interpretation in modern linguistics. Вестник Северо-Восточного Федерального Университета, 21(2), 169–181. https://doi.org/10.25587/2222-5404-2024-21-2-169-181
  104. Sweetser, E., & DesCamp, M. (2014). Conceptual metaphor in religious language. In Function of metaphor in religious language. Academic Library.
  105. Taheri, J. (2024). Analogical dialectics in religious language: Beyond literal/metaphorical reductionism. Religions, 15(11), 1343. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15111343
  106. Tahiri, L., & Muhaxheri, N. (2020). Stylistics as a tool for critical language awareness. Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 16(4), 1735–1746. https://doi.org/10.17263/jlls.850989
  107. Tannen, D. (1993). The relativity of linguistic strategies: Rethinking power and solidarity in gender and dominance. In D. Tannen (Ed.), Gender and conversational interaction (pp. 165–188). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195089755.001.0001
  108. Terra, K. R. C. (2018). Teorias da linguagem e estudos do discurso. Horizonte, 16(51), 1085. https://doi.org/10.5752/P.2175-5841.2018V16N51P1085
  109. Tessler, M. H., Tenenbaum, J. B., & Goodman, N. D. (2022). Logic, probability, and pragmatics in syllogistic reasoning. Topics in Cognitive Science, 14(3), 574–601. https://doi.org/10.1111/tops.12593
  110. Thabrani, W. (2025). The role of language in shaping religious practices and beliefs. Journal of Religion and Linguistics, 2(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.31763/jorel.v2i1.14
  111. Thiselton, A. C. (2007). The hermeneutics of doctrine. Eerdmans. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1b9x2kq
  112. Thornton, C. (2021). The impact of syntax. G3 Ministries. https://g3min.org/the-impact-of-syntax/
  113. Toan, L. N. (2024). The roles of religious language in building faith and religious communities. International Journal of Religion, 5(3), 533–546. https://doi.org/10.61707/eds4bb46
  114. Zhang, L. (2025). The digital age of religious communication: The shaping and challenges of religious beliefs through social media. Studies on Religion and Philosophy, 1(1), 25-41.

Tools


Copyright © 2026  KITE Digital Educational Solutions |  Exclusively distributed by CE-Logic